C++11 has taken another stab at function exception specifications for the masses. The shiny new ‘noexcept’ keyword is phasing out its zombie cousin ‘throw’. The well accepted guideline for the old exception specification is: "don’t use them!" That’s good for us because now we don’t have to bother (the reasons for not using throw specification aren’t for the faint hearted anyways.) The noexcept feature does not appear to be a walk in a park either. So hold on tight!
noexcept is meta-programmable! a.k.a conditional noexcept. It is possible to conditionally specify functions to throw any exceptions. The noexcept specification of functions can be inspected at compile-time and functions can derive their own noexcept specification based on exception specifications found elsewhere in the program. Meta-programs are not off-limits here. An excellent introduction of the noexcept feature and its history can be found in June’11 Overload Journal and on Andrzej's C++ blog. I won’t repeat that here but a quick motivation is in order.
Compile-time knowledge about a move-constructor that it does not throw (i.e., annotated with noexcept(true)) can be used for improved run-time performance. For example, std::vector<T>::resize, std::vector<T>::reserve automatically use T’s move-constructor instead of a copy-constructor if T's move-constructor does not throw. Moving of T objects instead of copying would likely achieve higher performance. The standard library provides std::move_if_noexcept function that does move only if it is guaranteed to not fail. Otherwise, it simply resorts to copy-construction. More on this can be found here. I'll return to the topic of writing noexcept move-ctor towards the end of this post.
But the post is about swapping, so lets talk about that. Here is how the std::pair::swap is declared in C++11.
It basically says that pair's swap will throw if either swapping of first or second member throws. The swapping of first and second possibly resolve to their own namespace-level swap via ADL or else they simply pick up std::swap (because pair::swap is declared in std namespace). This declaration seems to indicate a few things.
Lets look at how standard library uses noexcept for some of its own classes. We already saw std::pair before. How about std::tuple, which is a generalization of a struct and that’s why may be user-defined classes should follow the same basic principle. Tuple’s member swap is declared as
Tuple’s member swap inspects the noexcept specifications of its members’ swap functions and derives its own specification from that. That makes sense. If swapping of any of the member throws, the tuple’s swap throws. The declval function belongs to same clique as std::move, std::forward, etc. It is a way to obtain rvalue reference of a type without using a constructor. It suffices to say that declval<T> returns "T&&" and declval<T&> returns "T & &&", which is the same as "T &."
Consider a typical C++03 user-defined legacy class that manages its own resources.
The above legacy class is well-designed except for the fact that it does not have any namespace-level swap. To make it a better citizen in C++11, it needs a namespace-level swap. Interestingly enough, there is substantial code out there that has a specialization of the std::swap in the std namespace. Considering the popularity of this anti-pattern, it probably makes sense to add a swap in two places. It is not too much work in the first place and that may help people who always use a qualified swap (std::swap) habitually.
Let’s try to use this modernized legacy class in our C++11 class: Modern.
That’s one awful looking swap. My eyes bleed when I look at it.
It is doing exactly the same thing as std::tuple. It simply checks whether swapping two integers, two strings, and two arrays throw or not. If it does, then member swap of Modern throws. You can skip checks for integer swapping but what’s left is not pretty at all.
I like my strong exception safety in my little copy-assignment operator so I don’t want my swap to throw but I don’t want my program to std::terminate() if an exception is really thrown. With all that in mind, I would rewrite the swap as follows.
This is not unlike what’s proposed by others but there’s more. The static assert looks awful and looks redundant. There is already a standard library utility that does the same thing: std::tuple. As mentioned before, std::tuple’s swap throws if any member swap throws. We use it here to make our job a lot easier.
If you an enthusiastically paranoid C++ programmer, you may want to use conditional noexcept with a little meta-function (is_nothrow_swappable_all) to save typing.
The "remaining swap code" section above is also rather important. The recommended (by Dave and Howard) way to write it is to use unqualified swap but bring std::swap in the scope:
The appropriate swap (namespace-level via ADL or std::swap) will be chosen depending upon availability. That’s exactly what tuple’s swap noexcept checker is going to do for us.
Back to the move-constructor, as promised! As mentioned before, noexcept specification of a move-ctor may have performance implications. So you want to get it right. For the M::Modern class we could have defaulted the move-ctor (= default). That will give it a noexcept(false) specification automatically because internally it uses L::legacy’s copy constructor, which throws. As a consequence, std::vector::resize is not as fast as it can be. We can do better.
Implementing a move-ctor using the default-construct-and-swap idiom turns out be quite handy. Default-construct-and-swap does what it says by first delegating to a noexcept default constructor followed by a swap. To implement a noexcept move-ctor this way, you really need to make sure that swap does not throw. As always, you can rely on a conditional noexcept. I'm using std::is_nothrow_constructible type trait to test the obvious!
As long as Modern's default constructor and member swap are noexcept, the move-ctor is noexcept.
Finally, the move-assign operator can be simply implemented as a single swap operation but for some classes that may not be accurate.
Acknowledgements: I want to thank Howard Hinnant (former Library Working Group chair) for reviewing this article and providing me valuable feedback. Any inaccuracies and mistakes left in the article are strictly mine.
noexcept is meta-programmable! a.k.a conditional noexcept. It is possible to conditionally specify functions to throw any exceptions. The noexcept specification of functions can be inspected at compile-time and functions can derive their own noexcept specification based on exception specifications found elsewhere in the program. Meta-programs are not off-limits here. An excellent introduction of the noexcept feature and its history can be found in June’11 Overload Journal and on Andrzej's C++ blog. I won’t repeat that here but a quick motivation is in order.
Compile-time knowledge about a move-constructor that it does not throw (i.e., annotated with noexcept(true)) can be used for improved run-time performance. For example, std::vector<T>::resize, std::vector<T>::reserve automatically use T’s move-constructor instead of a copy-constructor if T's move-constructor does not throw. Moving of T objects instead of copying would likely achieve higher performance. The standard library provides std::move_if_noexcept function that does move only if it is guaranteed to not fail. Otherwise, it simply resorts to copy-construction. More on this can be found here. I'll return to the topic of writing noexcept move-ctor towards the end of this post.
But the post is about swapping, so lets talk about that. Here is how the std::pair::swap is declared in C++11.
void pair::swap(pair& p)
noexcept(noexcept(swap(first, p.first)) &&
noexcept(swap(second, p.second)));
It basically says that pair's swap will throw if either swapping of first or second member throws. The swapping of first and second possibly resolve to their own namespace-level swap via ADL or else they simply pick up std::swap (because pair::swap is declared in std namespace). This declaration seems to indicate a few things.
- For a user-defined type it is now much more preferable to have its own namespace-level swap overload instead of using vanilla std::swap. The namespace-level swap function, being an extension of the type’s interface, is vastly more efficient and often can be written in way that it does not throw. The std::swap function, on the other hand, may throw because it uses a copy-constructor and copy-assignment operator while swapping two objects. If you are like me, your member copy-assignment operator will use copy-and-swap idiom for strong exception safety. That means std::swap will create and destroy 3 copies. What a waste! Moreover, that increases the chance of throwing. Bottom line: If T has a member swap, a swap function should be added in the same namespace as of T.
- There are some assumptions buried in the above reasoning: (1) move-constructor is not available for a user-defined T, and (2) it is possible to implement member swap of T that does not throw and you can actually say so.
- As far as move-constructor being not available is concerned, I think, there are large number of C++03 libraries, which will acquire move-semantics slowly than you might desire. Till then std::swap will, unfortunately, use copy-ctor and copy-assign. A legacy class with a copy-ctor won’t get an automatic move-ctor because it would do wrong things.
- The noexcept specification of the user-defined swap better be accurate. Can we really write a nothrow member swap and say so confidently? Obviously, it depends on the members of the user-defined type that we’re swapping. To me, it’s all uphill from here.
Lets look at how standard library uses noexcept for some of its own classes. We already saw std::pair before. How about std::tuple, which is a generalization of a struct and that’s why may be user-defined classes should follow the same basic principle. Tuple’s member swap is declared as
void tuple::swap(tuple& rhs) noexcept(see below)
// The expression inside noexcept is equivalent to the
// logical AND of the following expressions:
noexcept(swap(declval<T&>(), declval<T&>()))
// where Ti is ith type in the variadic list of types.
Tuple’s member swap inspects the noexcept specifications of its members’ swap functions and derives its own specification from that. That makes sense. If swapping of any of the member throws, the tuple’s swap throws. The declval function belongs to same clique as std::move, std::forward, etc. It is a way to obtain rvalue reference of a type without using a constructor. It suffices to say that declval<T> returns "T&&" and declval<T&> returns "T & &&", which is the same as "T &."
Consider a typical C++03 user-defined legacy class that manages its own resources.
namespace L
{
struct legacy
{
legacy(); // Does not throw
legacy(const legacy &); // This may throw
legacy & operator = (const legacy &); // This may throw (strong exception safe)
~legacy() throw(); // Does not throw
void swap(legacy &) throw(); // Does not throw
};
} // namespace L
The above legacy class is well-designed except for the fact that it does not have any namespace-level swap. To make it a better citizen in C++11, it needs a namespace-level swap. Interestingly enough, there is substantial code out there that has a specialization of the std::swap in the std namespace. Considering the popularity of this anti-pattern, it probably makes sense to add a swap in two places. It is not too much work in the first place and that may help people who always use a qualified swap (std::swap) habitually.
namespace L
{
void swap(legacy &, legacy &) noexcept;
}
namespace std
{
template <>
void swap(L::legacy &, L::legacy &) noexcept;
}
Let’s try to use this modernized legacy class in our C++11 class: Modern.
namespace M
{
struct Modern
{
int count;
std::string str;
std::array<L::legacy, 5> data;
/// default-ctor, copy-ctor, copy-assign, move-ctor, move-assign are defined = default.
void swap(Modern & p)
noexcept(noexcept(swap(std::declval<int &>(),
std::declval<int &>())) &&
noexcept(swap(std::declval<std::string &>(),
std::declval<std::string &>())) &&
noexcept(swap(std::declval<std::array<L::legacy, 5> &>(),
std::declval<std::array<L::legacy, 5> &>())));
};
} // namespace M
That’s one awful looking swap. My eyes bleed when I look at it.
It is doing exactly the same thing as std::tuple. It simply checks whether swapping two integers, two strings, and two arrays throw or not. If it does, then member swap of Modern throws. You can skip checks for integer swapping but what’s left is not pretty at all.
| Note: The text in italics below is not accurate anymore as noted in the comment below. C++11 std::swap uses move-construction and move-assignment internally. As a result, std::swap in C++11 is generally very efficient IF the move-operations are defined and they are really more efficient than their copy counterparts. In such cases, there is little need to write a custom namespace-level swap. However, member swap may still be useful. See the "default-construct-and-swap" technique for implementing a move-constructor below. Couple of important things to note here:
|
I like my strong exception safety in my little copy-assignment operator so I don’t want my swap to throw but I don’t want my program to std::terminate() if an exception is really thrown. With all that in mind, I would rewrite the swap as follows.
void Modern::swap(Modern &) noexcept
{
static_assert(noexcept(swap(std::declval<int &>(),
std::declval<int &>())) &&
noexcept(swap(std::declval<std::string &>(),
std::declval<std::string &>())) &&
noexcept(swap(std::declval<std::array<L::legacy, 5> &>(),
std::declval<std::array<L::legacy, 5> &>())),
"throwing swap");
//.... remaining swap code
}
This is not unlike what’s proposed by others but there’s more. The static assert looks awful and looks redundant. There is already a standard library utility that does the same thing: std::tuple. As mentioned before, std::tuple’s swap throws if any member swap throws. We use it here to make our job a lot easier.
void Modern::swap(Modern & that) noexcept
{
typedef std::tuple<int, std::string, std::array <L::legacy, 5> > MemberTuple;
static MemberTuple *t = 0;
static_assert(noexcept(t->swap(*t)), "throwing swap");
// .... remaining swap code
}
If you an enthusiastically paranoid C++ programmer, you may want to use conditional noexcept with a little meta-function (is_nothrow_swappable_all) to save typing.
template<typename... T>
struct is_nothrow_swappable_all
{
static std::tuple<T...> *t = 0;
enum { value = noexcept(t->swap(*t)) };
};
void Modern::swap(Modern & that)
noexcept(is_nothrow_swappable_all<int, std::string, std::array<L::legacy, 5> >::value);
The "remaining swap code" section above is also rather important. The recommended (by Dave and Howard) way to write it is to use unqualified swap but bring std::swap in the scope:
void Modern::swap(Modern & that)
noexcept(is_nothrow_swappable_all<int, std::string, std::array<L::legacy, 5> >::value);
{
using std::swap;
swap(this->count, that->count);
swap(this->str, that->str);
swap(this->data, that->data);
}
The appropriate swap (namespace-level via ADL or std::swap) will be chosen depending upon availability. That’s exactly what tuple’s swap noexcept checker is going to do for us.
Back to the move-constructor, as promised! As mentioned before, noexcept specification of a move-ctor may have performance implications. So you want to get it right. For the M::Modern class we could have defaulted the move-ctor (= default). That will give it a noexcept(false) specification automatically because internally it uses L::legacy’s copy constructor, which throws. As a consequence, std::vector
Implementing a move-ctor using the default-construct-and-swap idiom turns out be quite handy. Default-construct-and-swap does what it says by first delegating to a noexcept default constructor followed by a swap. To implement a noexcept move-ctor this way, you really need to make sure that swap does not throw. As always, you can rely on a conditional noexcept. I'm using std::is_nothrow_constructible type trait to test the obvious!
Modern::Modern(Modern && m)
noexcept(std::is_nothrow_constructible<Modern>::value &&
noexcept(m.swap(m)))
: Modern()
{
swap(m);
}
As long as Modern's default constructor and member swap are noexcept, the move-ctor is noexcept.
Finally, the move-assign operator can be simply implemented as a single swap operation but for some classes that may not be accurate.
Modern::operator = (Modern && m) noexcept
{
swap(m);
}
Acknowledgements: I want to thank Howard Hinnant (former Library Working Group chair) for reviewing this article and providing me valuable feedback. Any inaccuracies and mistakes left in the article are strictly mine.
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